What is a case study method?
Briefly explain assumption and major steps in case study method.
Case study research
excels at bringing us to an understanding of a complex issue or object and can
extend experience or add strength to what is already known through previous
research. Case studies emphasize detailed contextual analysis of a limited
number of events or conditions and their relationships. Researchers have used
the case study research method for many years across a variety of disciplines.
Social scientists, in particular, have made wide use of this qualitative
research method to examine contemporary real-life situations and provide the
basis for the application of ideas and extension of methods. Researcher Robert
K. Yin defines the case study research method as an empirical inquiry that
investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the
boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which
multiple sources of evidence are used (Yin, 1984, p. 23). Critics of the case
study method believe that the study of a small number of cases can offer no
grounds for establishing reliability or generality of findings. Others feel
that the intense exposure to study of the case biases the findings. Some
dismiss case study research as useful only as an exploratory tool. Yet
researchers continue to use the case study research method with success in
carefully planned and crafted studies of real-life situations, issues, and
problems. Reports on case studies from many disciplines are widely available in
the literature. This paper explains how to use the case study method and then
applies the method to an example case study project designed to examine how one
set of users, non-profit organizations, make use of an electronic community
network. The study examines the issue of whether or not the electronic
community network is beneficial in some way to non-profit organizations and
what those benefits might be. Many well-known case study researchers such as
Robert E. Stake, Helen Simons, and Robert K.Yin have written about case study
research and suggested techniques for organizing and conducting the research
successfully. This introduction to case study research draws upon their work
and proposes six steps that should be used:
- Determine and define the research questions
- Select the cases and determine data gathering and analysis techniques
- Prepare to collect the data
- Collect data in the field
- Evaluate and analyze the data
- Prepare the report
Select the Cases and
Determine Data Gathering and Analysis Techniques: During the design phase of
case study research, the researcher determines what approaches to use in
selecting single or multiple real-life cases to examine in depth and which
instruments and data gathering approaches to use. When using multiple cases,
each case is treated as a single case. Each case?s conclusions can then be used
as information contributing to the whole study, but each case remains a single
case. Exemplary case studies carefully select cases and carefully examine the
choices available from among many research tools available in order to increase
the validity of the study. Careful discrimination at the point of selection
also helps erect boundaries around the case. The researcher must determine
whether to study cases which are unique in some way or cases which are
considered typical and may also select cases to represent a variety of
geographic regions, a variety of size parameters, or other parameters. A useful
step in the selection process is to repeatedly refer back to the purpose of the
study in order to focus attention on where to look for cases and evidence that
will satisfy the purpose of the study and answer the research questions posed.
Selecting multiple or single cases is a key element, but a case study can
include more than one unit of embedded analysis. For example, a case study may
involve study of a single industry and a firm participating in that industry.
This type of case study involves two levels of analysis and increases the
complexity and amount of data to be gathered and analyzed. A key strength of
the case study method involves using multiple sources and techniques in the
data gathering process. The researcher determines in advance what evidence to
gather and what analysis techniques to use with the data to answer the research
questions. Data gathered is normally largely qualitative, but it may also be
quantitative. Tools to collect data can include surveys, interviews,
documentation review, observation, and even the collection of physical
artifacts. The researcher must use the designated data gathering tools systematically
and properly in collecting the evidence. Throughout the design phase,
researchers must ensure that the study is well constructed to ensure construct
validity, internal validity, external validity, and reliability. Construct
validity requires the researcher to use the correct measures for the concepts
being studied. Internal validity (especially important with explanatory or
causal studies) demonstrates that certain conditions lead to other conditions
and requires the use of multiple pieces of evidence from multiple sources to
uncover convergent lines of inquiry. The researcher strives to establish a
chain of evidence forward and backward. External validity reflects whether or
not findings are generalizable beyond the immediate case or cases; the more
variations in places, people, and procedures a case study can withstand and
still yield the same findings, the more external validity. Techniques such as
cross-case examination and within-case examination along with literature review
helps ensure external validity. Reliability refers to the stability, accuracy,
and precision of measurement. Exemplary case study design ensures that the
procedures used are well documented and can be repeated with the same results
over and over again.
Prepare to Collect the
Data Because case study research generates a large amount of data from multiple
sources, systematic organization of the data is important to prevent the
researcher from becoming overwhelmed by the amount of data and to prevent the
researcher from losing sight of the original research purpose and questions.
Advance preparation assists in handling large amounts of data in a documented
and systematic fashion. Researchers prepare databases to assist with
categorizing, sorting, storing, and retrieving data for analysis. Exemplary
case studies prepare good training programs for investigators, establish clear
protocols and procedures in advance of investigator field work, and conduct a
pilot study in advance of moving into the field in order to remove obvious
barriers and problems. The investigator training program covers the basic
concepts of the study, terminology, processes, and methods, and teaches
investigators how to properly apply the techniques being used in the study. The
program also trains investigators to understand how the gathering of data using
multiple techniques strengthens the study by providing opportunities for
triangulation during the analysis phase of the study. The program covers
protocols for case study research, including time deadlines, formats for
narrative reporting and field notes, guidelines for collection of documents,
and guidelines for field procedures to be used. Investigators need to be good
listeners who can hear exactly the words being used by those interviewed. Qualifications
for investigators also include being able to ask good questions and interpret
answers. Good investigators review documents looking for facts, but also read
between the lines and pursue collaborative evidence elsewhere when that seems
appropriate. Investigators need to be flexible in real-life situations and not
feel threatened by unexpected change, missed appointments, or lack of office
space. Investigators need to understand the purpose of the study and grasp the
issues and must be open to contrary findings. Investigators must also be aware
that they are going into the world of real human beings who may be threatened
or unsure of what the case study will bring. After investigators are trained,
the final advance preparation step is to select a pilot site and conduct a
pilot test using each data gathering method so that problematic areas can be
uncovered and corrected. Researchers need to anticipate key problems and
events, identify key people, prepare letters of introduction, establish rules
for confidentiality, and actively seek opportunities to revisit and revise the
research design in order to address and add to the original set of research
questions.
4. Collect Data in the Field The
researcher must collect and store multiple sources of evidence comprehensively
and systematically, in formats that can be referenced and sorted so that
converging lines of inquiry and patterns can be uncovered. Researchers
carefully observe the object of the case study and identify causal factors
associated with the observed phenomenon. Renegotiation of arrangements with the
objects of the study or addition of questions to interviews may be necessary as
the study progresses. Case study research is flexible, but when changes are
made, they are documented systematically. Exemplary case studies use field
notes and databases to categorize and reference data so that it is readily
available for subsequent reinterpretation. Field notes record feelings and
intuitive hunches, pose questions, and document the work in progress. They
record testimonies, stories, and illustrations which can be used in later
reports. They may warn of impending bias because of the detailed exposure of
the client to special attention, or give an early signal that a pattern is
emerging. They assist in determining whether or not the inquiry needs to be
reformulated or redefined based on what is being observed. Field notes should
be kept separate from the data being collected and stored for analysis.
Maintaining the relationship between the issue and the evidence is mandatory.
The researcher may enter some data into a database and physically store other
data, but the researcher documents, classifies, and cross-references all
evidence so that it can be efficiently recalled for sorting and examination over
the course of the study.
Step 5. Evaluate and Analyze the
Data The researcher examines raw data using many interpretations in order to
find linkages between the research object and the outcomes with reference to
the original research questions. Throughout the evaluation and analysis
process, the researcher remains open to new opportunities and insights. The
case study method, with its use of multiple data collection methods and
analysis techniques, provides researchers with opportunities to triangulate data
in order to strengthen the research findings and conclusions. The tactics used
in analysis force researchers to move beyond initial impressions to improve the
likelihood of accurate and reliable findings. Exemplary case studies will
deliberately sort the data in many different ways to expose or create new
insights and will deliberately look for conflicting data to disconfirm the
analysis. Researchers categorize, tabulate, and recombine data to address the
initial propositions or purpose of the study, and conduct cross-checks of facts
and discrepancies in accounts. Focused, short, repeat interviews may be
necessary to gather additional data to verify key observations or check a fact.
Specific techniques include placing information into arrays, creating matrices
of categories, creating flow charts or other displays, and tabulating frequency
of events. Researchers use the quantitative data that has been collected to
corroborate and support the qualitative data which is most useful for
understanding the rationale or theory underlying relationships. Another
technique is to use multiple investigators to gain the advantage provided when
a variety of perspectives and insights examine the data and the patterns. When
the multiple observations converge, confidence in the findings increases.
Conflicting perceptions, on the other hand, cause the researchers to pry more
deeply. Another technique, the cross-case search for patterns, keeps
investigators from reaching premature conclusions by requiring that
investigators look at the data in many different ways. Cross-case analysis
divides the data by type across all cases investigated. One researcher then
examines the data of that type thoroughly. When a pattern from one data type is
corroborated by the evidence from another, the finding is stronger. When
evidence conflicts, deeper probing of the differences is necessary to identify
the cause or source of conflict. In all cases, the researcher treats the
evidence fairly to produce analytic conclusions answering the original "how"
and "why" research questions.
Step 6. Prepare the report
Exemplary case studies report the data in a way that transforms a complex issue
into one that can be understood, allowing the reader to question and examine
the study and reach an understanding independent of the researcher. The goal of
the written report is to portray a complex problem in a way that conveys a
vicarious experience to the reader. Case studies present data in very publicly
accessible ways and may lead the reader to apply the experience in his or her
own real-life situation. Researchers pay particular attention to displaying
sufficient evidence to gain the reader?s confidence that all avenues have been
explored, clearly communicating the boundaries of the case, and giving special attention
to conflicting propositions. Techniques for composing the report can include
handling each case as a separate chapter or treating the case as a
chronological recounting. Some researchers report the case study as a story.
During the report preparation process, researchers critically examine the
document looking for ways the report is incomplete. The researcher uses
representative audience groups to review and comment on the draft document.
Based on the comments, the researcher rewrites and makes revisions. Some case
study researchers suggest that the document review audience include a
journalist and some suggest that the documents should be reviewed by the
participants in the study.
Case studies are complex because
they generally involve multiple sources of data, may include multiple cases
within a study, and produce large amounts of data for analysis. Researchers
from many disciplines use the case study method to build upon theory, to
produce new theory, to dispute or challenge theory, to explain a situation, to
provide a basis to apply solutions to situations, to explore, or to describe an
object or phenomenon. The advantages of the case study method are its
applicability to real-life, contemporary, human situations and its public
accessibility through written reports. Case study results relate directly to
the common reader’s everyday experience and facilitate an understanding of
complex real-life situations.
ASSUMPTION OF CASE STUDY METHOD
The case study method is based on
several assumptions. The importance assumptions are explained below
Uniformity of human nature: The assumption of uniformity in
the basic human nature in spite of the fact that human behavior may vary
according to situations. This assumption underlines the collection of case data.
Nature history of the unit: The assumption of studying the
natural history of the unit concerned. It gives the background for the study
Comprehensive study: The assumption of comprehensive
study of the unit concerned
Applicability: Psychologist has stated that some
statement about human broadly apply to each individual or to each member of a
large group.
Homogeneity: According to Cora Dubois,an
antraopologist, the case study is possible only because of certain basic
homogeneity or similarity in evidenced in the mankind.
Major steps of case study method:
I. Identify the case topic,
setting, primary focus, and perspective.
II. Obtain relevant public
background materials and knowledgeable informant insights.
III. Obtain access, approval, and
clarify anonymity issues with key gatekeeper.
IV. Obtain relevant documents,
minutes, reports and other appropriate materials.
V. Develop preliminary chronology
of key events leading to controversy or decision and identify key players and
issues.
VI. Consider varied perspective
and sources of information and pedagogical purpose of the case.
VII. Develop interview protocol
(key questions for various informants) and further information to collect. This
will evolve further.
VIII. Conduct interviews and
collect other documents, information and materials.
IX. Develop case outline and
style of presentation.
X. Draft case. Obtain comment and
feedback from key gatekeeper (and other students). Revise and finalize the case
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